The elusive pangolin, otherwise known as the scaly anteater, is a mammal that inhabits the forests and grasslands of Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Despite the common collective reference of 鈥減angolins鈥�,聽 there are in fact eight extant species of pangolin, four of which are native to Asia: the Chinese pangolin (located across Bhutan, Nepal, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Taiwan and China); the Indian pangolin (found within India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka); the Philippine pangolin, native to the Philippines; and the Sunda pangolin (distributed across Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, Singapore and Vietnam). Regardless of their impressive geographical range, these timid animals edge closer towards extinction with each passing day. They are amongst the聽, due to the futile demand for their meat and keratins-rich scales.
鈥�
Family:听Manidae
Genus:听惭补苍颈蝉
Species:听惭补苍颈蝉 pentadactyla聽(Chinese pangolin),聽Manis crassicaudata聽(Indian pangolin),聽Manis culionensis聽(Philippine pangolin),聽Manis javanica聽(Sunda pangolin)
IUCN Status: Critically Endangered (Chinese pangolin, Philippine pangolin, Sunda pangolin),聽Endangered (Indian pangolin)
Population:听Insufficient Data
1. Appearance
The most defining characteristic of the pangolin is its armour of scales. Constituting, these thick, keratinous, overlapping scales shield the pangolin鈥檚 entire body, apart from its underbelly which is聽. Infant pangolins begin with聽, which start hardening on their second day of life. Once fully matured, scales vary in shades of brown and yellow, although聽. Similarly to our own nails and hair, a pangolin鈥檚 scales will also聽; filing down the edges occurs naturally by virtue of the animal鈥檚 habit of digging burrows and tunnelling underground. Whilst Asian and African pangolins share many similar physical characteristics, a distinguishing feature possessed solely by Asian pangolin species is聽. Amongst Asian pangolins, each species varies slightly in the size, quantity, bodily distribution and colour of their scales.
The Chinese pangolin, Manis pentadactyla. Photo by Sarita Jnawali for the Pangolin Specialist Group
Asiatic pangolin species also differ slightly in body size, with Indian pangolins proving to be the largest of the group at 84-122 centimetres in length, and 10 to 16 kilograms in weight. Indian pangolins also have the聽largest scales and longest claws聽of the four species. Chinese pangolins average a length of聽, and a weight of聽, whilst Sunda pangolins can reach a length of 122 centimetres and a weight of 10 kilograms.
2. Diet
Pangolins are insectivores and feast primarily on a diet of ants and termites, supplemented by a variety of聽聽(bee larvae, worms, flies, and crickets). As nocturnal hunters with poor vision, pangolins rely on their advanced olfactory sense to locate prey. However, with small heads, long snouts, and brawny front claws, they are able to聽聽with ease. Furthermore, due to a lack of teeth, pangolins have spectacularly long, powerful, sticky tongues used for聽. These gluey appendages can聽. Since pangolins cannot chew their food, these incredible creatures have developed a specialised stomach that aids with their digestion. The pangolin鈥檚 stomach is聽聽which, when paired with a few stones purposefully swallowed by the animal,聽聽in a similar fashion to a bird鈥檚 gizzard. To avoid troublesome ants entering through any facial cavities, or to prevent termites from escaping their fate, pangolins have also developed聽聽when digging.
Their dietary selectivity makes these scaly creatures difficult to keep in captivity, as they will often聽.
3. Habitat and Behaviour
Pangolins are known to inhabit a wide range of vastly diverse habitats, including: primary and secondary forests; grasslands; bamboo forests; arid savannahs; scrublands; mangroves; riverine forests; villages; palm oil and rubber plantations; and agricultural fields. As a consequence, pangolins are believed to聽, settling in artificial, degraded habitats where sources of prey remain plentiful. Nevertheless, further research into the capacity of these Pangolin species to聽聽is required. The habitat in which pangolin populations thrive most is primary forestland, due to the abundance of old, hollow trees for resting, ants nests, termite mounds, fresh water, and a lack of human activity.
Pangolins are nocturnal, solitary animals that spend the majority of their waking hours in search of food and shelter. These clawed creatures dig large burrows,聽, which they use for sleeping and mating. Alternatively, they enlarge existing termite burrows after excavating a mound and consuming its inhabitants. Some pangolins have been known to聽. Opportunistically arboreal in nature, pangolins also utilise their strong, semi-prehensile tails to climb trees in order to seek shelter in hollow trunks or to access ants nests. In fact, Indian pangolins inhabiting the tropical rainforests of Sri Lanka聽, where the growth of fruit and flowers attracts colonies of ants. Pangolins are also surprisingly聽, and can sometimes be seen taking a leisurely dip. Whilst both males and females tend to roam solitarily when not mating, females with offspring聽.
Although relatively small in stature, or perhaps as an evolutionary consequence of their size, pangolins possess an incredibly effective defence mechanism against predators.听When frightened, pangolins聽, thereby protecting their unscaled bellies and exposing their razor-sharp scales to any nearby threats. This characteristic defensive strategy perhaps inspired the nomenclative history of the species, as the word 鈥減angolin鈥� originates from the Malay word 鈥溾��, meaning 鈥渟omething that rolls up鈥�.听 A pangolin will also聽, lashing out at undeterred attackers and often inflicting serious injuries. As a last line of defence, these soldierly animals are able to聽聽from a gland below their tails to ward off any remaining predators.
4. Ecosystem Services
By virtue of their exclusive dietary preferences and tendency to dig, pangolins provide two key services to their surrounding ecosystems: soil maintenance and population control.
The pangolin鈥檚 unwavering appetite for termites and ants, as well as other insects and larvae, assists with the regulation of insect populations within several Asian countries. Pangolins are believed to consume approximately聽, equating to almost聽. This laborious feat contributes greatly to the聽, establishing equilibrium within the food chains of several different environments.
As aforementioned, pangolins habitually dig burrows for sleeping and mating, as well as for excavating ants nests and termite mounds. This regular disturbance of soil aids with soil aeration, similar to the effect of plowing crop fields. Aeration of soil is necessary to prevent the build up of compacted soil, which inhibits the circulation of water, nutrients and air. By digging up subsoil and overturning topsoil, pangolins naturally聽聽and contribute to the growth of healthy vegetation. Abandoned burrows also聽
5. Threats
Very little is known about pangolin population demographics, due to the insufficiency of scientific research conducted on the mammal. Yet, three Asian pangolin species (Chinese, Philippine, and Sunda) are currently classified as 鈥楥ritically Endangered鈥� under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, whilst the Indian pangolin is categorised as 鈥楨ndangered鈥�. This precautionary assessment is predominantly based on a number of factors.
The first, and most substantiating, is the apparent overexploitation of pangolins from illicit hunting and poaching. This conclusion is supported by the extremely high levels of trafficking witnessed throughout Asia, with the frequent interception of live, dead, or deconstructed pangolins within key consumer countries. Over the past decade,聽, which is more than the combined total of trafficked elephants, tigers, and rhinoceroses. However, this is believed to be a conservative figure, given that approximately 195,000 pangolins were trafficked solely for their scales in 2019. Many speculate that police聽聽of pangolins traded on the black market. Studies conducted in 2019 suggest that a聽听飞辞谤濒诲飞颈诲别.
At present, China and Vietnam stand as the primary importers and consumers of pangolin, although research shows an聽聽for pangolin skin in the production of leather clothing products. Within Asia, pangolin meat is considered a delicacy and is worth聽. Meanwhile, pangolin scales are believed to hold ethereal medicinal properties in traditional Asian remedial practices, and are used to treat a wide variety of illnesses from聽听迟辞听. Pangolin scales are even聽, as well as聽.
Originally, Asian pangolin species bore the brunt of the trafficking trade, as demands were highest on the continent. Nevertheless, due to the rapid decrease in pangolin populations across Asia, trader聽聽to meet the incessant demand for meat and scales. In 2019, a shipment containing聽, having arrived from Nigeria. Within the same year, a similar report arose in Singapore as聽, each containing approximately 12,700 kilograms of pangolin scales. A report released in 2020 by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime indicated that聽.
The demand for pangolins has yet to subside, largely due to the incredibly聽. In India, the聽聽substantially over the past 20 years. There is little evidence to suggest that聽聽in Asian countries are effective, especially given the聽聽in key consumer countries, as well as in primary export and transit locations. Myanmar, Laos and Thailand play a significant part as transit countries for the trade of pangolins since all three regions lack the governmental transparency and legal resources necessary to effectively curb the market. These issues are compounded by the fact that the pangolin is a relatively easy target for poachers, given their complete immobility once frightened.
A second factor is the rapid and unrelenting pattern of deforestation across numerous Asian countries, posing a threat to the integrity of potential pangolin habitat. As aforementioned, there has been little scientific research conducted on the habitat preferences of pangolins within Asia. The Sunda pangolin has been known to聽, and the Indian pangolin has been recorded inhabiting聽, as well as anthropogenically degraded areas. It is thus difficult to say with complete certainty that deforestation has directly impacted pangolin populations. However, this uncertainty alone warrants further investigation into the ability of pangolins to thrive long-term in such inhospitable environments as rubber and palm oil plantations.
Regardless of the direct culpability of deforestation, the inherent clearing of trees frequently opens up areas of land聽, as well as to agricultural developers who regularly聽. The聽聽in countries such as Cambodia further incentivises loggers to focus their efforts on more lucrative sources of income, such as the poaching of pangolins. Infrastructural projects which fragment forested areas, such as the building of roads, also聽.
A third factor supporting the pangolin鈥檚 precautionary 鈥楥ritically Endangered鈥� status is the inherent difficulty associated with studying their population dynamics, as well as their ecological and behavioural traits. The general lack of scientific data on the various species has greatly compounded the inadequacy of conservation strategies, which are already contending with the incentives of a multimillion dollar black market trade. Strategies for habitat loss, poaching and conflict-management are rendered futile without a detailed understanding of the pangolin鈥檚 habitat preferences, population densities, tolerance to anthropological pressures, migratory patterns, and ecological characteristics. Results from recent biodiversity surveys demonstrate the ineffectiveness of conventional monitoring techniques, such as counting burrows, as pangolins have been proven to聽. Such elusive creatures require聽, thereby alerting us to the true extent of the pangolin鈥檚 plight and hopefully providing some insight into effective conservation schemes.
6. Conservation Efforts
In 2016, a significant yet overdue step was taken in the field of pangolin conservation, as all eight species were added to Appendix I in the聽Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This prohibits the international trade of聽. Although many national legislative measures banning the illegal capture, consumption and trade of pangolins predated the amendment of CITES, it was hoped that the international ban would instill a degree of accountability which was noticeably absent from national enforcement tactics.
Nevertheless, the treaty has thus far been unsuccessful. The demand for pangolin meat and scales continues to grow annually, and key consumer countries remain unregulated. Although there has been an increase in cases of confiscated pangolin products, this fact is likely indicative of the聽. Furthermore, issues of jurisdiction frequently allow traffickers to escape liability and prosecution when shipments are intercepted.
In 2020, China updated its national legislation to purportedly聽, which previously allowed for the consumption of pangolin meat within China. The legislative changes also claimed to聽. However, studies conducted in mid-2020 by the Environmental Investigation Agency indicated that Chinese pharmaceutical companies, such as the Beijing Tong Ren Tang Group, and popular online platforms, such as eBay and Taobao,聽聽after the legislative changes. It was discovered that 221 companies were licensed to sell products containing pangolin scales, which were distributed from certified 鈥渘ational stockpiles鈥�.
It is thus clear that the enactment of national and international legislative measures is not enough to reduce the trafficking of pangolins. Of equal importance are novel methods of regulating national markets, as well as effective strategies aimed at聽听补苍诲听. Campaigns and partnerships organised by numerous NGOs successfully raise awareness of the illegal pangolin trade, garnering more international media attention with each passing year.听聽trained by wildlife conservation organisations are increasingly deployed to key airports, shipping ports and other known trade hubs to intercept illegal trafficking. Community education and outreach programs in villages and towns across Asia advise against the hunting and poaching of pangolins, as well as providing the聽聽as an alternative source of food and income. Wildlife authorities patrolling protected areas are聽. Various rescue centres have been established across Asia for the聽. Lastly,聽聽conducted by various conservation groups are aimed at determining the population demographics of each pangolin species, as well as uncovering key ecological and behavioural traits possessed by pangolins which could assist with the development of effective conservation strategies.
The start of 2020 presented a potential, yet somewhat unconventional, silver lining in pangolin conservation with the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic. Despite our then limited understanding of the virus and its effects, scientists wasted no time in tying the rampant trafficking of pangolins in China to the initial outbreak of the disease in the region. In early February of 2020, speaking at a press conference in Guangzhou, two scientists claimed to have tested coronaviruses from humans and pangolins with聽聽between the genetic sequences of each virus. These claims were later partially recanted with the release of a preliminary version of the investigation, which stated that the pangolin virus was聽.听
Nevertheless, by the end of February 2020, the Chinese government had聽聽of various animals, including the pangolin. Markets specialising in the sale of wild animals were also聽. It is unclear whether these fear-induced measures will influence the overall trade of pangolins, since the market has largely shifted to importing scales for pharmaceutical products. Nevertheless, NGOs such as WWF have cited the health crisis as a 鈥溾��
NGO Spotlight
One organisation at the forefront of pangolin protection initiatives is the聽, managed by the聽聽and the聽聽group. The PCF provides grants to numerous projects aimed at streamlining conservation strategies through hands-on community service and research-based work. These include:听, and protecting these key sites through collaborations with NGOs, governments, and local populations; conducting聽聽and assisting in聽; engaging local Indonesian communities in conservation projects, such as聽; and聽聽to inform international conservation initiatives to the reality of the situation. The incredible work performed by organisations such as the Pangolin Crisis Fund are instrumental in the campaign against pangolin extinction.
What Can You Do To Help?
- Donate or volunteer with a pangolin conservation group. There are several organisations working incredibly hard to protect pangolins worldwide through lobbying campaigns, fundraising events, research initiatives and community outreach programmes. Get in touch with your local wildlife conservation group and see what you can do to help.
- Raise Awareness. The illegal pangolin trade has amassed a significant amount of international media attention over the past few years, however consumer demands for pangolin products have yet to decrease and governments continue to falter with enforcing legislative measures. Inform your local community of the pangolin鈥檚 plight and lobby your government to hold CITES signatories accountable for their actions.
- Avoid purchasing pangolin products. Be sure that any handbags, belts and accessories that you buy are not made with pangolin scales. Certain medicinal products manufactured in China or Vietnam may also contain powdered pangolin scales, so make sure to read the label first.
Featured image by: Gerald Cubitt for the Pangolin Specialist Group
If you want to learn more about endangered species, make sure to check out other articles from our Endangered Species Spotlight Series
